From bc231cbc9d3982d4591b9b84cd571ac1f4f6f83b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Amolith Date: Sun, 2 Nov 2025 11:06:05 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] feat(agents): add docs, crush config --- crush.json | 6 + docs/00 effective spaced repetition.md | 1453 ++++++++++++++++++++++++ docs/01 dict.md | 582 ++++++++++ docs/02 philosophy.md | 6 + docs/03 phonology.md | 6 + docs/04 grammar and vocab.md | 37 + docs/05 formatting rules.md | 58 + 7 files changed, 2148 insertions(+) create mode 100644 crush.json create mode 100644 docs/00 effective spaced repetition.md create mode 100644 docs/01 dict.md create mode 100644 docs/02 philosophy.md create mode 100644 docs/03 phonology.md create mode 100644 docs/04 grammar and vocab.md create mode 100644 docs/05 formatting rules.md diff --git a/crush.json b/crush.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..eb68f116a34b07b3cf2aba29a0c214a39a1dd99b --- /dev/null +++ b/crush.json @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +{ + "$schema": "https://charm.land/crush.json", + "options": { + "context_paths": ["docs/"] + } +} diff --git a/docs/00 effective spaced repetition.md b/docs/00 effective spaced repetition.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..56ffd1431cce15a795ac32e8eb726f71945745b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/00 effective spaced repetition.md @@ -0,0 +1,1453 @@ +# Overview of Spaced Repetition {#overview} + +The idea is mechanically very simple: as you learn things, you write +_flashcards_, which are question/answer pairs. Then you review them: you look at +the question, recall the answer, and turn the card over to see the answer. Then +you grade yourself: did you recall correctly or incorrectly? + +If you keep recalling correctly, the review interval grows longer; if you get it +wrong, the interval gets shorter. + +Some people use paper cards, most people use software such as [Anki][anki], +because the algorithm schedules reviews efficiently, so you don't over-review +material. Unless you have a paper fetish, just use software. + +# Limiting Factors {#limit} + +If you're so smart, why aren't you rich? Or: if spaced repetition is so +effective, why doesn't everyone do it? Why isn't it as common as drinking +coffee? + +There are two main limiting factors to effective spaced repetition. + +## Habit Formation {#habit} + +For spaced repetition to be useful, it has to be a habit. I drill flashcards +every day as part of my morning routine. But habit formation is difficult, +doubly so for people who have ADHD or are low in conscientiousness. + +The reason you have to do it every day is that the spaced repetition algorithm +schedules the reviews for you, freeing you from having to do that manually. But +you don't know what cards are due in a given day until you open the app. And if +you skip a day, those cards pile up and are due the next day. + +A common failure mode (and I did this more than once, before I got the hang of +it) is to use Anki for two weeks, then drop it, and pick it back up six months +later only to find you have 600 cards due for review. This is not encouraging, +and it defeats the point of spaced repetition, which is to review the cards on +the intervals the algorithm chooses. + +I don't have much advice in this area, except that if you have persistent +problems with conscientiousness, untreated ADHD etc. you should address that +first. + +## Card-Writing Skills {#skill} + +Writing effective flashcards is a skill that took me a while to acquire. Many of +the cards I wrote in the first four or six months of using spaced repetition +consistently turned out pretty much useless, and this can be frustrating. The +main reason to write this post was to communicate the lessons I learnt so you +can jump in to using spaced repetition effectively from the start. + +One reason this can be frustrating is you'll often remember a flashcard for the +first few weeks of it (when you're seeing it with high frequency), but after a +couple of months, you start failing it. It didn't take root in your long term +memory, because it was poorly written in some way. And this long feedback cycle +means it takes time to acquire these skills through trial and error. + +# Words of Encouragement {#encouragement} + +Learning is an automatic, instinctual process. It's a fundamental feature of +intelligence. It's a testament to how bad schooling is that people think they +have to have a special kind of brain to learn effectively, and that the idea of +learning triggers aversion in people. Remember the words of Feynman: "what one +fool can do, another can". + +# Rules {#rules} + +Here are my rules for effective spaced repetition. + +The rules are sorted by applicability (but not necessarily importance), with the +more general ones first, and most specific ones last. + +Because many of the examples involve multiple rules at the same time, I decided +to list the examples separately from the list of rules. + +## Rule: Understand First {#understand} + +Don't try to memorize what you don't understand. The concepts should be clear in +your head before you try to commit them to memory. "Clear" can be a fuzzy +thing. What I tend to do is: dig, expand, and clarify the text until I'm +comfortable I have a good grasp of this region of the concept graph, and then +write the flashcards. + +Often, when reading a book, you can't write the flashcards exactly as you read +the text, because further information can clarify or tie together important +concepts. It can be useful to keep a scratchpad where you write tentative +flashcard text as you read a chapter, and at the end you organize and +re-organize your scratchpad until you can commit it to flashcards. + +## Rule: Be Honest {#honest} + +The software doesn't know whether you recalled something correctly or not. You +are only accountable to yourself. If you recalled something wrong, or not quite +right, err on the side of caution and mark it forgotten. + +## Rule: Keep It Fun {#fun} + +This is _crucial_ to maintaining the habit. If reviewing flashcards feels like a +chore, you will become averse to doing it. + +I used to frequently have this problem. I solved it in a few ways: + +1. Having a diverse knowledge base you're drilling helps, so you are not bored + by going through the same topic for a long time. Typically, spaced repetition + software will shuffle the cards, so that if you're drilling all the cards + across all decks, you will be surprised often. +2. A common source of frustration is cards that are too long to recall quickly, + and thus feel like a chore. Break big cards down into smaller cards. It feels + good to be able to fly through the cards quickly. +3. Cards that are difficult to recall are very frustrating. I solved this by + applying the rules described in this post. + +## Rule: Repeat Yourself {#repeat} + +Memory is frequency times volume. Individual cards should be extremely brief, +but your deck as a whole can be as repetitive as you want. + +## Rule: Organize by Source {#source} + +Organize content by source, not topic. + +The reason is you'll often bring in information from multiple sources: multiple +textbooks, plus Wikipedia, plus lecture notes, etc. Each one of these sources +likely has a different way of organizing knowledge. + +Don't waste time trying to find the perfect ontology. + +Make a deck for each source. In the case of textbooks, make a sub-deck for each +chapter. In the case of math textbooks, possibly make a sub-sub-deck in each +chapter to put theorem cards. + +This also makes it easier to keep track of how far along you got into a text. + +## Rule: Write Atomic Flashcards {#atomicity} + +Cards should be short. They should refer to as little information as +possible. They should be like chemical bonds, linking individual _atoms_ of +knowledge. + +_This is the most important thing._ By far the worst failure mode is to +put too much in a flashcard. + +There's two reasons for this rule: + +1. Larger cards are harder to remember. +2. It's harder to objectively grade yourself: when you reveal the answer, you + might have got some things right and some things wrong. If you click forget, + you will be over-reviewing the parts you already know. If you click + remembered, you will under-review the parts you forgot. + +There is one exception to this: you can have big cards if you also have smaller +cards that add up to the same information. You can think of the larger card as +testing that you can collate the information from the smaller cards. + +## Rule: Write Two-Way Questions {#bidirectionality} + +When possible, ask questions in two directions. + +Whenever you have a term with a definition, the obvious thing to do is to ask +for the definition from the term, e.g.: + +> Q: What is the order of a group? +> +> A: The cardinality of its underlying set. + +But you can also ask for the term from the definition, e.g.: + +> Q: What is the term for the cardinality of a group? +> +> A: The group's order. + +When you have some notation, like $\mathbb{R}$ for the real numbers, or $\dim V$ +for the dimension of a vector space, the natural thing to ask is what the +notation means. + +> Q: What does $\mathbb{R}$ stand for? +> +> A: The set of real numbers. + +You can also ask the question backwards: + +> Q: What is the notation for the set of real numbers? +> +> A: $\mathbb{R}$ + +## Rule: Ask Questions in Multiple Ways {#poly} + +Ask questions in multiple ways. Ask for formal and informal definitions of +terms. Ask for the formal and informal statements of a theorem. Ask questions +forwards and backwards. Add contextual questions: "what is the intutition for +[concept]?". Add questions that link different concepts across your knowledge +graph. + +The more interlinked your knowledge graph is, the better. + +## Rule: Concept Graphs {#graph} + +It can help to visualize the concepts you're acquiring as being like a graph, +where each node represents a discrete concept having certain properties, and the +edges in the graphs are questions which get you from one concept to another. + +## Rule: Cache Your Insights {#caching} + +When studying, you will often infer new knowledge that is not explicitly written +down in the text by thinking about what you've just read. After verifying that +your inference is actually true, it can be helpful to "cache your insight"---to +make a flashcard for that new discovered piece of knowledge. + +## Rule: Learning Hierarchies {#hier} + +A lot of knowledge is hierarchical, of the form "Foo can be either A, B, or C", +or, dually, "A is a kind of Foo". By analogy to OOP: these concepts are joined +by superclass and subclass relations. + +The idea is to ask questons in the top down direction ("What are the subclasses of +Foo?") and the bottom-up direction ("What is Bar a subclass of?"). + +This ties into keeping flashcards atomic. Even when some information is not +hierarchical, intrinsically, breaking down large flashcards into smaller +flashcards is fundamentally building a hierarchy of flashcards. + +## Rule: Learning Sequences {#seq} + +In general, to learn a sequence $(A_1, \dots, A_n)$, you want to generate the +following flashcards for each $i \in [1,n]$: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------------------------------- | ----------- | +| What is the $i$-th element? | $A_i$ | +| What is the position of $A_i$? | $i$ | +| What element comes after $A_i$? | $A_\{i+1\}$ | +| What element comes before $A_i$? | $A_\{i-1\}$ | + +You might also want: + +1. A **test card:** a flashcard asking you to recite the sequence from beginning + to end. +2. A **cloze sequence:** flashcard with a cloze deletion for each element in the + sequence, to fill in the blank given the context. + +The [sequence script](#seq-script) can generate these for you. + +How thorough you want to be depends on the nature of the information. Most of +the time I use a cloze card and a test card. + +Another type of card you might use (I use this to memorize poems) is a card that +gives you some context (the previous one or two items in the sequence) and asks +you to fill in the blank. For example, if you wanted to learn the sequence (A, +B, C, D), you might have these flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------- | ------ | +| _Beginning_, ... | A | +| _Beginning_, A, ... | B | +| A, B, ... | C | +| B, C, ... | D | + +The [poetry script](#poetry-script) can generate these for you. + +# Examples {#ex} + +Many of these examples are overkill: we collect a lot more flashcards than the +subject deserves. But this is to illustrate the general rules. With experience, +you can learn how many questions a particular topic requires, and different +volumes of your knowledge graph will be more or less interlinked. + +## Example: Magma Formation {#magma} + +From my geology notes: + +
+ +Magma is liquid rock under the Earth's surface. + +The three magma-forming processes are: + +1. **Increasing Temperature:** increasing temperature can melt rock. +1. **Decreasing Pressure:** when the pressure drops, atoms are more free to + move, and rock becomes liquid. +1. **Addition of Water:** water lowers the melting point of rock, because the + water molecules disrupt the crystal bonds. + +Magma forms in three places: + +1. **Hot spots:** as hot rock rises, pressure decreases and it becomes magma. +2. **Rift zones:** as tectonic plates are pulled apart, hot rock rises (because + it is less dense) to plug the gap and melts due to decreasing pressure. +3. **Subduction zones:** water-rich ocean lithosphere sinks into the mantle. The + water heats up and rises, adding water to the overlying rock, which the + melts. + +
+ +Let's break this down hierarchically. We want to memorize three things: + +1. What magma is. +2. How it forms. +3. Where it forms. + +First, the definition: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------ | -------------------------------------- | +| What is magma? | Liquid rock under the Earth's surface. | +| What is the term for liquid rock under surface of the Earth? | Magma. | + +Second, we want to know how magma forms. A common mistake here would be to put +the magma-forming processes _and_ their explanations in the same +flashcard. Rather, to keep each card as small as possible, we want to separate +the list of processes from their definitions. + +So we first as for a list of mechanisms: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------- | +| What are the magma-forming processes? | Increasing temperature, decreasing pressure, addition of water. | + +And then we ask for an explanation of each. We don't really need to ask why +adding temperature melts rock: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------------------- | +| Why does decreasing pressure melt rock? | Because the atoms are more free to move. | +| Why does adding water lower the melting point of rock? | Because water molecules disrupt the bonds in the rock minerals. | + +Third: where magma is found. Again, we separate the list from the details: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- | +| Where does magma form? | Over hot spots, in rift zones, and in subduction zones. | + +Then we ask for details. For each place where magma forms, we ask both which +processes are involved, and what the full causal explanation is. We also ask the +question backward: which places involve a given process. + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| What magma-forming process happens over a hot spot? | Pressure-release melting. | +| What magma-forming process happens in a rift zone? | Pressure-release melting. | +| What magma-forming process happens in a subduction zone? | Increasing temperature and addition of water. | +| Where does magma form due to pressure release? | Hot spots and rift zones. | +| Where does magma form due to increasing temperature and the addition of water? | Subduction zones. | +| How does magma form in a hot spot? | As hot mantle rock rises, the decrease in pressure causes it to melt. | +| How does magma form in a rift zone? | As the tectonic plates move apart, hot rock rises to fill the gap, and the decrease in pressure causes it to melt. | +| How does magma form in a subduction zone? | Waterlogged crust dives into the mantle, the water turns to steam and rises, the addition of water to overlying rock causes it to melt. | + +We can visualize the resulting knowledge graph like this: + + + +## Example: Plate Tectonics {#tectonics} + +Here's the information: + +
+ +The zone where two or more tectonic plates meet is called a _plate +boundary_. There are three kinds: + +1. Convergent boundaries: plates come together. +2. Divergent boundaries: plates move apart. +3. Transform boundaries: plates slide past each other. + +
+ +Applying the rule that cards should be two-way, we want two flashcards for the +term 'plate boundary'. + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------- | +| What is a plate boundary? | The place where tectonic plates meet. | +| What is the term for the place where tectonic plates meet? | Plate boundary. | + +For the different types of plate boundary, we only ask the question in the +top-down direction (we don't need to ask "what kind of thing is a transform +boundary?", since the name kind of gives it away): + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------- | --------------------------------- | +| What are the types of plate boundary? | Convergent, divergent, transform. | + +For each kind of plate boundary, we also ask the question in two ways: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------- | +| Definition: convergent boundary. | Where tectonic plates come together. | +| Definition: divergent boundary. | Where tectonic plates move apart. | +| Definition: transform boundary. | Where tectonic plates slide past each other. | +| Term: place where tectonic plates come together. | Convergent boundary. | +| Term: place where tectonic plates move apart. | Divergent boundary. | +| Term: place where tectonic plates slide past each other. | Transform boundary. | + +Graphically, here's how the questions link the concepts in the knowledge graph: + + + +## Example: Neural Cells {#neural} + +
+ +Cells in the nervous system are divided into neurons and glia. Glial cells are +divided into macroglia and microglia. Macroglia are divided into astrocytes, +oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells. + +
+ +Visually: + + + +We first write the top-down questions: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ | +| What kinds of cell make up the nervous system? | Neurons and glia. | +| What are the kinds of glial cell? | Microglia and macroglia. | +| What are the kinds of macroglia? | Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells. | + +And the bottom-up questions. We don't ask these when the answers are obvious: +"what are microglia/macroglia a kind of" has an obvious answer. + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------- | ---------- | +| Astrocytes are a kind of... | Macroglia. | +| Oligodendrocytes are a kind of... | Macroglia. | +| Schwann cells are a kind of... | Macroglia. | + +## Example: Neuron Types {#neurons} + +This is a brief example about keeping cards short and using hierarchies to break +things down. + +From my neuroscience notes: + +
+ +Neurons can be divided into three categories by their function: + +1. **Sensory:** feed sensory information into the brain. +2. **Motor:** send motor commands to the muscles. +3. **Interneurons:** connect within the CNS. These are further divided into: + 1. **Local:** form circuits with nearby neurons. + 2. **Relay:** have long axons and communicate across brain regions. + +
+ +Let's start by doing this the wrong way, by loading too much information +into one card. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
What are the functional categories of neuron? +
    +
  • Sensory: feed sensory information into the brain.
    • +
  • Motor: send motor commands to the muscles.
    • +
  • Interneurons: connect within the CNS.
    • +
+ (😩 too long) +
What are the different types of interneuron? +
    +
  • Local: form circuits with nearby neurons.
    • +
  • Relay: have long axons and communicate across brain regions.
    • +
+ (😩 too long) +
+ +Let's first break this down by separating _terms_ from _definitions_: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | +| What are the functional categories of neuron? | Sensory, motor, interneurons. | +| What are sensory neurons? | Neurons which feed information into the brain. | +| What are motor neurons? | Neurons which send commands to the muscles. | +| What are interneurons? | Neurons which connect within the CNS. | +| What are the types of interneuron? | Local, relay. | +| What are local interneurons? | Interneurons that form circuits with nearby neurons. | +| What are relay interneurons? | Interneurons have long axons and communicate across brain regions. | + +Now we ask the questions in the backward direction: from the definition to the term: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------ | +| What is the term for a neuron that feeds information into the brain? | Sensory neuron. | +| What is the term for a neuron that sends commands to the muscles? | Motor neuron. | +| What is the term for a neuron that connects within the CNS? | Interneuron. | +| What is the term for an interneuron that forms circuits with nearby neurons? | Local interneuron. | +| What is the term for an interneuron that communicates across brain regions? | Relay interneuron. | + +## Example: Vector Spaces {#vect} + +Here's what we want to learn: + +
+ +A vector space, informally, is a set whose elements---called vectors---can be +added or scaled. + +More formally: a vector space over a field $\mathbb{F}$ is a set $V$ plus two +operations: + +1. Vector addition: $V \times V \to V$ +1. Scalar multiplication: $V \times \mathbb{F} \to V$ + +Satisfying the following axioms: + +Commutativity of Addition +: $u + v = v + u$ + +Associativity of Addition +: $u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w$ + +Identity of Addition +: $\exists 0 \in V : v + 0 = v$ + +Inverse of Addition +: $\forall v \in V, \exists -v \in V : v + (-v) = 0$ + +Identity of Scaling +: $1v = v$ + +Distributivity +: $\forall v \in V, a,b \in \mathbb{F} : (a+b)v = av + bv$ + +
+ +We have to break this down. Severely. We will do this step by step. + +First, we have to separate the informal (intuitive) and formal definitions: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
Informally: what is a vector space?A set whose elements can be added or scaled.
Formally: what is a vector space?A vector space over a field $\mathbb{F}$ is a set $V$ plus two operations: vector addition and scalar multiplication.
+ +We add one brief question about notation (you may choose to skip this one, it's +an example): + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
What are the elements of a vector space called?Vectors.
+ +Now we ask about the signatures of the operations: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
What is the signature of vector addition?$V \times V \to V$
What is the signature of scalar multiplication?$V \times \mathbb{F} \to V$
+ +Next, we ask for the axioms: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
What are the axioms that define a vector space? +
    +
  1. Commutativity of Addition
    2. +
  2. Associativity of Addition
    3. +
  3. Identity of Addition
    4. +
  4. Inverse of Addition
    5. +
  5. Identity of Scaling
    6. +
  6. Distributivity
    7. +
+
+ +Finally, we ask what each axiom means: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
Vector spaces: state: commutativity of addition$u + v = v + u$
Vector spaces: state: associativity of addition$u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w$
Vector spaces: state: identity of addition$\exists 0 \in V: v + 0 = v$
Vector spaces: state: inverse of addition$\forall v \in V, \exists -v \in V: v + (-v) = 0$
Vector spaces: state: identity of scaling$1v = v$
Vector spaces: state: distributivity$\forall v \in V, a,b \in \mathbb{F}: (a+b)v = av + bv$
+ +Graphically, you can try visualizing the flashcards and their relationships like this: + + + +If you want to be extra thorough, you can also write the backwards questions: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------- | +| What is the term for a set whose elements can be added or scaled? | A vector space. | +| Name this axiom: $u + v = v + u$ | Commutativity of Addition | +| Name this axiom: $u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w$ | Associativity of Addition | +| Name this axiom: $\exists 0 \in V : v + 0 = v$ | Identity of Addition | +| Name this axiom: $\forall v \in V, \exists -v \in V : v + (-v) = 0$ | Inverse of Addition | +| Name this axiom: $1v = v$ | Identity of Scaling | +| Name this axiom: $\forall v \in V, a,b \in \mathbb{F} : (a+b)v = av + bv$ | Distributivity | + +## Example: Parity Group {#parity} + +
+ +The _parity group_ is a group that represents the rules for adding even and odd +numbers. The underlying set is $\set{\text{even}, \text{odd}}$, with +$\text{even}$ and $\text{odd}$ representing even and odd numbers +respectively. The composition table is: + +| $+$ | $\text{even}$ | $\text{odd}$ | +| $\text{even}$ | $\text{even}$ | $\text{odd}$ | +| $\text{odd}$ | $\text{odd}$ | $\text{even}$ | + +The identity element is $\text{even}$. The group is Abelian. + +
+ +We can turn this into the following flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| What is the parity group? | The group that represents the rules for adding even and odd numbers. | +| What is the order of the parity group? | $2$ | +| What is the underlying set of the parity group? | $\set{\text{even}, \text{odd}}$ | +| What is the identity element of the parity group? | $\text{even}$ | +| What is the operation of the parity group? | Addition of even and odd numbers. | +| $\text{even} + \text{even} = $ | $\text{even}$ | +| $\text{even} + \text{odd} = $ | $\text{odd}$ | +| $\text{odd} + \text{even} = $ | $\text{odd}$ | +| $\text{odd} + \text{odd} = $ | $\text{even}$ | +| Is the parity group Abelian? Why or why not? | Yes, because addition commutes. | + +## Example: Logical Consequence {#logical-consequence} + +From my notes on logic: + +
+ +The two notions of _logical consequence_ are: + +1. **Semantic Consequence:** $Q$ is a semantic consequence of $P$ iff, in every + interpretation where $P$ is true, $Q$ is also true. This is denoted $P + \models Q$. +1. **Syntactic Consequence:** $Q$ is a syntactic consequence of $P$ iff there + exists a proof from $P$ to $Q$. This is denoted $P \vdash Q$. + +Semantic consequence is about interpretations, while syntactic consequence is +about proofs. + +
+ +We begin with the most basic question: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------ | ----------------------- | +| What are the two notions of logical consequence? | Semantic and syntactic. | + +Then we ask questions specifically about semantic consequence: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| Define semantic consequence | $Q$ is a semantic consequence of $P$ iff in every interpretation where $P$ is true, $Q$ is also true. | +| What's the notation for "$Q$ is a semantic consequence of $P$"? | $P \models Q$ | +| What does $P \models Q$ mean? | $Q$ is a semantic consequence of $P$ | +| Semantic consequence connects sentences by... | Interpretations. | +| Which notion of logical consequence involves interprerations? | Semantic consequence. | + +And then about syntactic consequence: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| Define syntactic consequence | $Q$ is a syntactic consequence of $P$ iff there is a proof from $P$ to $Q$. | +| What's the notation for "$Q$ is a syntactic consequence of $P$"? | $P \vdash Q$ | +| What does $P \vdash Q$ mean? | $Q$ is a syntactic consequence of $P$ | +| Syntactic consequence connects sentences by... | Proofs. | +| Which notion of logical consequence involves proofs? | Syntactic consequence. | + +## Example: Periodization {#perodization} + +Timelines are a great example of how breaking information down hierarchically +can help you learn long sequences. Sometimes the breakdown is already done for +us. + +
+ +The [geologic time scale][gts] (GTS) divides the geological record of the Earth +into four nested time units: + +[gts]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale + +1. The **eon** is the largest unit. Eons last hundreds of millions of years. +2. Eons are further divided into **eras**, which last tens to hundreds of + millions of years. +3. Eras are divided into **periods**, which last millions to tens of millions of + years. +4. Finally, periods are divided into **epochs**, which last hundreds of + thousands to millions of years. + +The four eons, from oldest to most recent, are: + +1. Hadean (4.5Gya to 4Gya) +2. Archean (4Gya to 2.5Gya) +3. Proterozoic (2.5Gya to 538Mya) +4. Phanerozoic (538Mya to present) + +
+ +We want to learn the following things: + +1. What the geologic time scale is. +2. How it divides the Earth's history. +3. The four eons. + +Let's begin with the simplest flashcards, the definition of the GTS: + +| Question | Answer | +| ----------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------- | +| What is the geologic time scale? | The timeline of Earth's history. | +| What is the term for the timeline of Earth's history? | The geologic time scale. | + +The subdivisions form a sequence, from oldest to most recent: eon, era, period, +epoch. So let's feed it into the [sequence script](#seq-script). Here's the +input: + +``` +Geologic Time Units +Eon +Era +Period +Epoch +``` + +Running `cat units.txt | ./sequence.py > units.csv` and importing `units.csv` +into Mochi, we get these flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------ | ------------------------ | +| **Geologic Time Units:** Recall all elements of the sequence | Eon, Era, Period, Epoch. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What element has position 1? | Eon. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What element has position 2? | Era. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What element has position 3? | Period. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What element has position 4? | Epoch. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What is the position of Eon? | 1. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What is the position of Era? | 2. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What is the position of Period? | 3. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What is the position of Epoch? | 4. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes after Eon? | Era. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes after Era? | Period. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes after Period? | Epoch. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes before Era? | Eon. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes before Period? | Era. | +| **Geologic Time Units:** What comes before Epoch? | Period. | + +You probably don't need _all_ of these. You can probably get away with just +these: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ----------------------- | +| What are the units of the geologic time scale, from largest to smallest? | Eon, era period, epoch. | +| What is the largest unit in the geologic time scale? | The eon. | +| What is the second-largest unit in the geologic time scale? | The era. | +| What is the third-largest unit in the geologic time scale? | The period. | +| What is the smallest unit in the geologic time scale? | The epoch. | + +Now, since this is a concept hierarchy, we also ask the "what is" questions. + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------ | -------------------------------------- | +| What is an eon? | A division of the geologic time scale. | +| What is an era? | A division of the geologic time scale. | +| What is an period? | A division of the geologic time scale. | +| What is an epoch? | A division of the geologic time scale. | + +And, since units have a duration, we ask what for the duration. We do this +forwards and backwards: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------- | +| What is the duration of an eon? | Hundreds of millions of years. | +| Which geologic unit lasts hundreds of millions of years? | Eons. | +| What is the duration of an era? | Tens to hundreds of millions of years. | +| Which geologic unit lasts tens to hundreds of millions of years? | Eras. | +| What is the duration of a period? | Millions to tens of millions of years. | +| Which geologic unit lasts millions to tens of millions of years? | Periods. | +| What is the duration of an epoch? | Hundreds of thousands to millions of years. | +| Which geologic unit lasts hundreds of thousands to millions of years? | Epochs. | + +Now, the four eons. These form a sequence, we don't do the whole sequence script +thing again, since you have probably, again, just use these: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------ | +| List eons from oldest to newest | Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic. | +| What is the first eon? | Hadean | +| What is the second eon? | Archean | +| What is the third eon? | Proterozoic | +| What is the fourth eon? | Phanerozoic | + +We also ask when each eon began and ended, forwards and backwards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------- | ----------- | +| When did the Hadean begin? | 4.5 Gya | +| When did the Hadean end? | 4 Gya | +| Which eon began 4.5 Gya? | Hadean | +| Which eon ended 4 Gya? | Hadean | +| When did the Archean begin? | 4 Gya | +| When did the Archean end? | 2.5 Gya | +| Which eon began 4 Gya? | Archean | +| Which eon ended 2.5 Gya? | Archean | +| When did the Proterozoic begin? | 2.5 Gya | +| When did the Proterozoic end? | 538 Mya | +| Which eon began 2.5 Gya? | Proterozoic | +| Which eon ended 538 Mya? | Proterozoic | +| When did the Phanerozoic begin? | 538 Mya | +| When did the Phanerozoic end? | Present | +| Which eon began 538 Mya? | Phanerozoic | +| Which eon is ongoing? | Phanerozoic | + +## Example: Rational Numbers {#ratnums} + +Let's commit this to spaced repetition: + +
+ +The set of rational numbers, denoted $\mathbb{Q}$, is the set of fractions with +integer numerator and denominator, where the denominator is non-zero. + +Formally: + +$$ +\mathbb{Q} = \left\{\, \frac{p}{q} \,\, \middle| \,\, p, q \in \Z \land q \neq 0 \,\right\} +$$ + +The $\mathbb{Q}$ stands for _quotient_. + +
+ +Let's visualize the concept graph as we build up the flashcards. We start with +the central node, the concept of the rational numbers: + + + +Then we add a notation node, linked by two forward and backwards questions: + + + +| Question | Answer | +| ----------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------- | +| What is the notation for the set of rational numbers? | $\mathbb{Q}$. | +| What does $\mathbb{Q}$ stand for? | The set of rational numbers. | + +Formal as well as informal definitions: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
Informally, what is the set of rational numbers?The set of fractions with integer numerator and denominator, where the denominator is non-zero.
Formally, what is the set of rational numbers?$\mathbb{Q} = \left\{\, \frac{p}{q} \,\, \middle| \,\, p, q \in \Z \land q \neq 0 \,\right\}$
What's the term for the set of integer fractions?The rational numbers.
What is the name of this set? $\left\{\, \frac{p}{q} \,\, \middle| \,\, p, q \in \Z \land q \neq 0 \,\right\}$The rational numbers.
+ +And a final note on notation: what the $\mathbb{Q}$ stands for: + + + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------ | --------------- | +| What are the rational numbers denoted by $\mathbb{Q}$? | Q for quotient. | + +## Example: Regular Expressions {#regex} + +This is an example about asking questions in two ways. + +These cards go from a concept to a regex: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------------- | ------ | +| What regex matches the start of a line? | `^` | +| What regex matches the end of a line? | `$` | +| What regex matches a digit? | `\d` | + +In addition to the above, add cards that go from the regex to the concept: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------- | -------------------- | +| What does `^` match? | The start of a line. | +| What does `$` match? | The end of a line. | +| What does `\d` match? | A digit 0-9. | + +## Example: Voltage {#voltage} + +This is an example of asking questions in different ways + +
+ +The _voltage_ between two points $A$ and $B$ can be defined as either: +Voltage can be defined as: + +1. The difference in electric potential between the two points. +1. The amount of work done by a $1C$ particle as it travels from $A$ to $B$. + +
+ +The idea here is: + +1. We first ask for the definition of voltage in terms of both electric + potential and work. +2. We also ask what is the term for each definition. + +Which gives us the following flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------- | +| What is voltage in terms of electric potential? | Difference in electric potential between two points. | +| What is voltage in terms of work? | Work done by a 1C particle as it travels from A to B. | +| What is the term for the difference in electric potential between two points? | Voltage. | +| What is the term for the work done by a 1C particle as it travels between two points? | Voltage. | + +## Example: Isomers {#isomers} + +
+ +Two chemical compounds are said to be **isomers** of each other if they have the +same chemical formula (same number of atoms of each element) but their +three-dimensional structure differs. + +Isomers can be divided into: + +1. **Structural Isomers:** the chemical formula is the same but the atoms are + bonded differently. +1. **Stereoisomers:** the chemical formula and the bonds are the same but the + spatial arrangement is different. These are divided into: + 1. **Conformational Isomers:** can be intercoverted by rotating about a sigma + bond. + 1. **Configurational Isomers:** cannot be interconverted without breaking a + bond. These are further subdivided into: + 1. **Enantiomers:** non-superposable mirror images. Also called _optical + isomers_ because of the way they reflect plane-polarized light. + 1. **Diastereomers:** not enantiomers. One important subtype is: + 1. **Cis/Trans Isomers:** occur when two functional groups can find + themselves on the same or opposite sides of a rigid structure. When + both functional groups are on the same side of the rigid structure, + that is a _cis_ isomer; when they are on opposite sides, that is a + _trans_ isomer. + +This is an example of a _cis_ isomer: + + + +This is an example of a _trans_ isomer: + + + +
+ +This is fairly straightforward: we have to learn a hierarchy of +definitions. We'll divide this into two tasks: + +1. First, definitions. Ask questions from the term to the definition and from + the definition to the term. +2. Second, hierarchy: ask about subtypes and supertypes. + +So let's begin with the definitions. First we ask the questions in the forward +direction: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| What is an isomer? | Two compounds are isomers when they have the same chemical formula but different 3D structures. | +| What are structural isomers? | Compounds with the same formula but the atoms have a different bond graph.. | +| What are stereoisomers? | Compounds with the same formula and bond graph but different spatial arrangement. | +| What are conformational isomers? | Isomers that can be interconverted by rotating about a sigma bond. | +| What are configurational isomers? | Isomers that cannot be interconverted without breaking a bond. | +| What are enantiomers? | Non-superposable mirror images. | +| What are diastereomers? | Stereoisomers that are not enantiomers. | +| What are cis/trans isomers? | Isomers where two functional groups are on the same or opposite sides of a rigid structure. | + +And now the definitions, in the backward direction: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------- | +| What is the term for compounds with the same chemical formula but different 3D structures? | Isomer | +| What is the term for isomers with the same formula but a different bond graph? | Structural Isomer | +| What is the term for isomers that have the same bond graph different spatial arrangement? | Stereoisomer | +| What is the term for isomers that can be interconverted by rotating about a sigma bond? | Conformational Isomer | +| What is the term for isomers that cannot be interconverted without breaking a bond? | Configurational Isomer | +| What is the term for non-superposable mirror images? | Enantiomer | +| What is the term for stereoisomers that are not enantiomers? | Diastereomer | +| What is the term for isomers where two functional groups are on the same or opposite sides of a rigid structure? | Cis/Trans Isomer | + +We left some information out, to keep the cards atomic, now we have to ask +questions to recall that information: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| What is another term for enantiomer? | Optical isomer. | +| Why are enantiomers also called optical isomers? | Because of the way they reflect plane-polarized light. | +| What is an optical isomer? | Another term for enantiomer. | +| What is a _cis_ isomer? | One with both functional groups on the same side of a rigid structure. | +| What is the term for an isomer with both functional groups on the same side a rigid structure. | A _cis_ isomer. | +| What is a _trans_ isomer? | One with both functional groups on the same side of a rigid structure. | +| What is the term for an isomer with both functional groups on the same side a rigid structure. | A _trans_ isomer. | + +Now we move on to the hierarchy, which connects these concepts. We first ask the +questions in the downward direction, from parent to child: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ | +| What are the subtypes of isomers? | Structural isomers, stereoisomers. | +| What are the subtypes of stereoisomers? | Conformational isomers, configurational isomers. | +| What are the subtypes of configurational isomers? | Enantiomers, diastereomers. | +| What are the subtypes of diastereomers? | Cis/trans isomers. | + +And now in the upward direction: + +| Question | Answer | +| ----------------------------------------- | ---------------------- | +| Structural isomers are a kind of ... | Isomer | +| Stereoisomers are a kind of ... | Isomer | +| Conformational isomers are a kind of ... | Stereoisomer | +| Configurational isomers are a kind of ... | Stereoisomer | +| Enantiomers are a kind of ... | Configurational isomer | +| Diastereomers are a kind of ... | Configurational isomer | +| Cis/trans isomers are a kind of ... | Diastereomer | + +And, finally, the examples: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ----------------- | +| What kind of isomer is this? | A _cis_ isomer. | +| What kind of isomer is this? | A _trans_ isomer. | + +## Example: Months of the Year {#months} + +Suppose you want to memorize: + +
+ +1. January +2. February +3. March +4. April +5. May +6. June +7. July +8. August +9. September +10. October +11. November +12. December + +
+ +The index-to-element flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ----------------------------------- | --------- | +| What is the 1st month of the year? | January | +| What is the 2nd month of the year? | February | +| What is the 3rd month of the year? | March | +| What is the 4th month of the year? | April | +| What is the 5th month of the year? | May | +| What is the 6th month of the year? | June | +| What is the 7th month of the year? | July | +| What is the 8th month of the year? | August | +| What is the 9th month of the year? | September | +| What is the 10th month of the year? | October | +| What is the 11th month of the year? | November | +| What is the 12th month of the year? | December | + +The element-to-index flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------------------- | ------ | +| January is the ... month of the year. | 1 | +| February is the ... month of the year. | 2 | +| March is the ... month of the year. | 3 | +| April is the ... month of the year. | 4 | +| May is the ... month of the year. | 5 | +| June is the ... month of the year. | 6 | +| July is the ... month of the year. | 7 | +| August is the ... month of the year. | 8 | +| September is the ... month of the year. | 9 | +| October is the ... month of the year. | 10 | +| November is the ... month of the year. | 11 | +| December is the ... month of the year. | 12 | + +The successor flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| --------------------------- | --------- | +| What comes after January? | February | +| What comes after February? | March | +| What comes after March? | April | +| What comes after April? | May | +| What comes after May? | June | +| What comes after June? | July | +| What comes after July? | August | +| What comes after August? | September | +| What comes after September? | October | +| What comes after October? | November | +| What comes after November? | December | + +And the predecessor flashcards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ---------------------------- | --------- | +| What comes before February? | January | +| What comes before March? | February | +| What comes before April? | March | +| What comes before May? | April | +| What comes before June? | May | +| What comes before July? | June | +| What comes before August? | July | +| What comes before September? | August | +| What comes before October? | September | +| What comes before November? | October | +| What comes before December? | November | + +## Example: Powers of Two {#powers} + +Let's memorize the first sixteen powers of two: + +
+ +$$ +\begin{align*} +2^{2} &= 4\\ +2^{3} &= 8\\ +2^{4} &= 16\\ +2^{5} &= 32\\ +2^{6} &= 64\\ +2^{7} &= 128\\ +2^{8} &= 256\\ +2^{9} &= 512\\ +2^{10} &= 1024\\ +2^{11} &= 2048\\ +2^{12} &= 4096\\ +2^{13} &= 8192\\ +2^{14} &= 16384\\ +2^{15} &= 32768\\ +2^{16} &= 65536 +\end{align*} +$$ + +
+ +The forward cards ask for the power: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------- | ------- | +| $2^2$ | $4$ | +| $2^3$ | $8$ | +| $2^4$ | $16$ | +| $2^5$ | $32$ | +| $2^6$ | $64$ | +| $2^7$ | $128$ | +| $2^8$ | $256$ | +| $2^9$ | $512$ | +| $2^{10}$ | $1024$ | +| $2^{11}$ | $2048$ | +| $2^{12}$ | $4096$ | +| $2^{13}$ | $8192$ | +| $2^{14}$ | $16384$ | +| $2^{15}$ | $32768$ | +| $2^{16}$ | $65536$ | + +While the backwards cards ask for the exponent from the power: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------------- | ------ | +| $\log_2 4$ | $2$ | +| $\log_2 8$ | $3$ | +| $\log_2 16$ | $4$ | +| $\log_2 32$ | $5$ | +| $\log_2 64$ | $6$ | +| $\log_2 128$ | $7$ | +| $\log_2 256$ | $8$ | +| $\log_2 512$ | $9$ | +| $\log_2 1024$ | $10$ | +| $\log_2 2048$ | $11$ | +| $\log_2 4096$ | $12$ | +| $\log_2 8192$ | $13$ | +| $\log_2 16384$ | $14$ | +| $\log_2 32768$ | $15$ | +| $\log_2 65536$ | $16$ | + +Finally, I have a test card that asks me to recall the entire sequence in order. + +## Example: Rilke {#rilke} + +Let's memorize this poem: + +
+ +**Archaic Torso of Apollo** + +Rainer Maria Rilke + +We cannot know his legendary head
+with eyes like ripening fruit. And yet his torso
+is still suffused with brilliance from inside,
+like a lamp, in which his gaze, now turned to low, + +gleams in all its power. Otherwise
+the curved breast could not dazzle you so, nor could
+a smile run through the placid hips and thighs
+to that dark center where procreation flared. + +Otherwise this stone would seem defaced
+beneath the translucent cascade of the shoulders
+and would not glisten like a wild beast's fur: + +would not, from all the borders of itself,
+burst like a star: for here there is no place
+that does not see you. You must change your life. + +
+ +You could run this through the [sequence script](#seq-script), but that seems a +bit cold and mechanical. We'll use the [poetry script](#poetry-script) instead, +which shows us two lines of context and asks us to complete the next line. The +generated flashcards are: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
QuestionAnswer
+ Beginning
+ ... + 		+ We cannot know his legendary head +
+ Beginning
+ We cannot know his legendary head
+ ... + 		+ with eyes like ripening fruit. And yet his torso +
+ We cannot know his legendary head
+ with eyes like ripening fruit. And yet his torso
+ ... + 		+ is still suffused with brilliance from inside, +
+ with eyes like ripening fruit. And yet his torso
+ is still suffused with brilliance from inside,
+ ... + 		+ like a lamp, in which his gaze, now turned to low, +
+ is still suffused with brilliance from inside,
+ like a lamp, in which his gaze, now turned to low,
+ ... + 		+ gleams in all its power. Otherwise +
+ +And so on. You get the pattern. + +## Example: Pharmacology {#pharma} + +
+ +The **dissociation constant** ($K_d$) of a drug is the drug concentration where +half the binding sites in an assay are occupied. + +
+ +This will be an example of [caching your insights](#caching). From this text, we +can deduce more things: + +1. A _high_ value of $K_d$ means the drug has a _low_ affinity for the binding + sites, because it takes a higher concentration to reach the same amount of + binding. +2. A _low_ value of $K_d$ means the drug has a _high_ affinity for the binding + sites, because it takes a lower concentration to reach the same occupancy. + +And from the above two facts we can also conclude: + +1. $K_d$ is inversely proportional to binding affinity. + +From this, we can start asking the questions: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- | +| What is the term for the drug concentration where half the binding sites are occupied? | Dissociation constant. | +| What is the notation for the dissociation constant? | $K_d$ | +| What does $K_d$ stand for? | The dissociation constant. | +| What does a low value of $K_d$ mean? | High binding affinity. | +| Why does a low value of $K_d$ imply high binding affinity? | Fewer molecules are needed to reach the same occupancy. | +| What does a high value of $K_d$ mean? | Low binding affinity. | +| Why does a high value of $K_d$ imply low binding affinity? | More molecules are needed to reach the same occupancy. | +| If a drug's binding affinity is high, what does that tell us about $K_d$? | $K_d$ is low. | +| If a drug's binding affinity is low, what does that tell us about $K_d$? | $K_d$ is high. | +| Describe the relationship between $K_d$ and binding affinity. | $K_d$ is inversely proportional to binding affinity. | +| $K_d$ is \_\_\_ proportional to binding affinity. | Inversely. | + +Visually: + + + +## Example: Misc. Examples {#misc} + +Given: + +> US Treasury bonds are called treasuries. + +You can write the following forward-backward cards: + +| Question | Answer | +| ------------------------------------- | ------------------ | +| What are US Treasury bonds nicknamed? | Treasuries. | +| What is nicknamed 'treasuries'? | US Treasury bonds. | + +Given: + +> The derivative of $\sin x$ is $\cos x$. + +You can ask for both the derivative and the antiderivative: + +| Question | Answer | +| -------------------- | -------- | +| Derivative: $\sin x$ | $\cos x$ | +| Integral: $\cos x$ | $\sin x$ | diff --git a/docs/01 dict.md b/docs/01 dict.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..487a1fbb1d1762e2884a7571893205a594ec87d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/01 dict.md @@ -0,0 +1,582 @@ +a +: particle: (emotional interjection, emphasis or confirmation) + +akesi (The word “akesi” used to also mean “‘non-cute’ animal”, but the second official toki pona book has removed this meaning) +: noun: lizard, reptile + +ala +: noun: nothing +: adjective: not, no, empty +: number: zero + +alasa +: verb: to hunt, to gather +: verb (unconventional): to search, to look for +: pre-verb (unconventional): to try (doing something) + +ale/ali +: noun: everything, universe +: adjective: every, all, abundant +: number: all/infinite (simple system), 100 (complex system) + +anpa +: noun (old/non-pu): lower part +: adjective: bowing down, downward, lowly, humble, dependent +: verb w/o obj: to bow down +: verb w/ obj: to conquer, to defeat + +ante +: noun: difference, change, (unconventional) version +: adjective: different, other, changed +: verb: to change + +anu +: particle: or + +awen +: noun (unconventional): stability, safety, wait +: adjective: kept, safe, enduring, resilient, waiting, staying +: verb: keep, stay, endure, protect +: pre-verb: continue (doing something) + +e +: particle: (specifies an object) + +en +: particle: and (combines subjects) + +epiku (typically used as a form of slang, has also found common use in “ma pona pi toki pona”’s “acro” games, as the only other non-particle word starting with “e” is “esun”.) +: adjective: epic, awesome + +esun +: noun: trade, transaction, exchange +: adjective: trade/exchange-related, commercial +: verb: to trade, to exchange + +ijo +: noun: thing, object, matter +: adjective: material, physical + +ike +: noun: evil +: adjective: bad, evil, complex, unnecessary +: verb (unconventional): make smth worse + +ilo +: noun: tool, machine, device +: adjective: useful, (unconventional) electronic, metallic + +insa +: noun: insides, contents, center, stomach +: adjective: central, inside, between + +jaki +: noun: dirt, waste +: adjective: dirty, disgusting, toxic, unclean, unsanitary +: verb: to make something dirty + +jan +: noun: person, people, humanity, somebody +: adjective: human-like, personal + +jasima +: noun: mirror, reflection, echo +: adjective: opposite +: verb: to reflect, to reverse + +jelo +: noun/adjective: (the color) yellow (and its shades) +: verb: to color smth yellow + +jo +: noun: (unconventional) possessions, property +: verb: to have/carry/contain/hold + +kala +: noun: fish, marine animal, sea creature + +kalama +: noun: sound, noise +: adjective: loud, noisy, sound-making +: verb: to make noise, to recite, to play (an instrument) + +kama +: noun: event, arrival +: adjective: arriving, coming, future, summoned +: pre-verb: to become, to be in the process of (doing smth), to manage to, to succeed in + +kasi +: noun: plant, grass, herb, leaf + +ken +: noun: ability, possibility, (unconventional) right, liberty +: adjective (unconventional): able, possible +: pre-verb: can (do smth), may (do smth) + +kepeken +: noun: use, (unconventional) practice +: verb w/ obj: to use smth +: preposition: (do smth) using, with the help of + +kijetesantakalu (one of the “joke words” created by Sonja Lang, has become very popular among tokiponists, as has the sitelen pona character for it) +: noun: raccoon or other musteloid + +kili +: noun: fruit, vegetable, mushroom + +kin (in the first official book, this word was merged with “a”. However, many people use it separately from “a”, with “a” emphasizing someone’s feelings) +: particle: very, really, also + +kipisi (an old word not included in the first official book, but which many people still use. Those who want to only use _lipu pu_ vocabulary might want to use “tu”, which can also be used as a verb to mean “to divide”, the same way “wan” means “to unite”) +: verb: to cut, to divide + +kiwen +: noun: hard object, metal, stone, solid +: adjective: hard, metallic, solid + +ko +: noun: powder, clay, paste, semi-solid + +kokosila (This word is taken from an Esperanto verb “krokodili”, which in turn means to not speak Esperanto in an Esperanto environment) +: verb: to speak not in toki pona in an environment where others speak toki pona + +kon +: noun: air, essence, spirit, (unconventional) gas +: adjective: invisible, ephemeral, (unconventional) gaseous + +ku (much like interacting with the first official toki pona book was given the word “pu”, so does the second book with “ku”. In fact, in _lipu ku_, words “ju”, “lu”, “nu”, “su” and “u” are all listed as “(word reserved for future use by Sonja Lang)”, presumably to be given to the next five official toki pona books that should be created in the future. (In fact, Sonja Lang has started publishing a series of illustrated story books, beginning with “The Wonderful Wizard of Oz”, that are collectively known as _lipu su_)) +: noun: the Toki Pona Dictionary by Sonja Lang +: verb: to interact with ku + +kule +: noun: color, (rare) gender +: adjective: colorful, painted +: verb: to paint smth a color + +kulupu +: noun: group, community, company, society, nation, tribe +: adjective: communal, social + +kute +: noun: ear, hearing +: adjective: …-sounding +: verb: to hear, to listen, to obey + +la +: particle: “if/when” (introduces context) + +lanpan (Without this word, the typical way to express getting or taking something would be “kama jo e …” (to come into possession of …), possibly with additional adjectives like “ike” or “utala”. The word is famously used in the title of “lanpan pan”, the toki pona translation/summary of Peter Kropotkin’s “The Conquest of Bread”.) +: verb: to get, to take, to steal + +lape +: noun: sleep, rest +: adjective: sleeping, restful +: verb: to sleep, to rest + +laso +: noun/adjective: (the color) blue, green (and its shades) +: verb: to color something blue/green + +lawa +: noun: head, mind +: adjective: main, primary, controlling, ruling +: verb: to head, to control, to direct, to guide, to lead, to own, to rule + +leko (an old word that was not included in the first official book, but which is actively used by people, as it’s considered hard to express the meaning of “square” without it) +: noun: square, block, (sometimes) stairs + +len +: noun: cloth, clothes, fabric, layer of privacy +: adjective: clothed, made of cloth/fabric +: verb: to clothe, to provide a layer of privacy + +lete +: noun: cold +: adjective: cold, cool, raw, uncooked +: verb: to cool down + +li +: particle: (between subj. and verb/adj.) + +lili +: noun: smallness +: adjective: small, few, young +: verb: to shrink + +linja +: noun: long flexible object, string, rope, hair + +lipu +: noun: flat object, book, document, paper, page, record, website +: adjective: flat, used as lipu, lipu-like, of lipu + +loje +: noun/adjective: (the color) red (and its shades) +: verb: to color smth red + +lon +: noun: truth, life, existence +: adjective: real, true, present, existing +: verb w/o object: is true, exists +: preposition: in, at, on + +luka +: noun: hand, arm +: number: 5 (complex system) + +lukin +: noun: eye, vision +: adjective: …-looking, visual +: verb: to look, to see, to read +: pre-verb: to seek (to do something) + +lupa +: noun: hole, door, orifice, window + +ma +: noun: earth, land, outdoors, territory, country + +mama +: noun: parent, ancestor, creator, origin, caretaker +: verb: to create, to parent, to take care of + +mani +: noun: money, large domesticated animal +: adjective: (unconventional) wealthy + +meli +: noun: woman, female, wife +: adjective: feminine + +meso (in some ways, this word is similar to “insa”, but it also lets people say that a thing is moderately X without having to use phrases like “ona li wawa mute ala, li wawa lili ala”.) +: noun: middle, center +: adjective: average, moderate, mediocre + +mi +: noun: i, me, we, us +: adjective: my, our + +mije +: noun: man, male, husband +: adjective: masculine + +misikeke (invented by Sonja Lang, but was not included as part of _lipu pu_. (My personal guess is because “ijo pi pona sijelo” is a rather simple way to say “medicine” without it)) +: noun: medicine, cure +: adjective: medicinal +: verb: to cure + +moku +: noun: food +: adjective: edible, of food +: verb: to eat, to drink, to swallow + +moli +: noun: death +: adjective: dead, dying +: verb: to kill + +monsi +: noun: back, behind, rear, butt +: adjective: back, rear + +monsuta (usage of this word can be especially confusing without extra context. Some people refer to this confusion as “monsutatesu”) +: noun: fear, monster +: adjective: scary, monstrous +: verb: to scare, to be afraid of, (sometimes) to turn into a monster + +mu +: (any animal sound) + +mun +: noun: moon, star, night sky object +: adjective: lunar, stellar + +musi +: noun: game, art +: adjective: entertaining, artistic, amusing +: verb: to amuse, to play, to have fun + +mute +: noun: quantity +: adjective: many, more +: number: 3 or more (simple system), 20 (complex system) + +n (Technically, the word “n” breaks the rules of toki pona by using a non-allowed syllable, but as it basically functions as a word on its own, it’s allowed. Or one can interpret syllable-final “n” as a separate mora, like in Japanese, where “n” on its own is apparently also used as an interjection) +: interjection: um…, hm… (“thinking noise”) + +namako (In the first official book, this word was merged with “sin”. However, many people keep using it separately from “sin”. “sin” is interpreted to mean “new” and “namako” to mean “additional”) +: noun: spice, addition +: adjective: additional, extra +: verb: to add, to spice up + +nanpa +: noun: number +: adjective: -th (ordinal indicator), mathematical, numeric, (unconventional) digital + +nasa +: adjective: weird, unusual, strange, drunk + +nasin +: noun: path, road, street, directive, way, custom +: adjective: street-, true to the directive/way/custom +: verb (unconventional): to guide, to show the path + +nena +: noun: hill, mountain, button, bump, nose +: adjective: hilly, mountainous, bumpy + +ni +: noun/adjective: this, that + +nimi +: noun: word, name + +noka +: noun: foot, leg, bottom, lower part, under (smth) + +o +: particle: (addressing people, commands) + +oko (In the first official book, this word was merged into “**lukin**”. People who use this word separately from “lukin” typically use “oko” to mean “eye” and “lukin” to mean “sight” or “vision”) +: noun: eye + +olin +: noun: love, compassion, affection, respect +: adjective: loved, favorite, respected +: verb: to love, to respect + +ona +: noun: he, she, they, it +: adjective: his, her, their, its + +open +: noun: start, beginning +: adjective: initial, starting +: verb: to start, to open, to turn on +: pre-verb: to begin (doing something) + +pakala +: noun: damage, mistake +: adjective: broken, wrong +: verb: to break, to make mistakes +: particle: (generic curse) + +pali +: noun: work, labor +: adjective: working +: verb: to work (on), to make + +palisa +: noun: long solid object, branch, stick, (unconventional) length +: adjective: long + +pan +: noun: bread, grain, corn, rice, pizza + +pana +: adjective: (unconventional) given, sent, released +: verb: to give, to send, to emit, to release + +pi +: particle: “of” (regroups two or more modifiers) + +pilin +: noun: heart, feeling, touch, sense +: adjective: feeling, touch-based +: verb: to touch, to think, to feel + +pimeja +: noun: (the color) black (and its shades), shadow +: adjective: black, dark +: verb: to color smth black, to cast a shadow + +pini +: noun: end, finish +: adjective: final, completed, finished, past (with tenpo) +: verb: to end, to finish, to close +: pre-verb: to end/stop doing something + +pipi +: noun: insect, bug + +poka +: noun: hip, side, nearby area +: adjective: neighboring, nearby, at one’s side + +poki +: noun: box, container, bowl, cup, drawer +: verb (unconventional): to put in a box + +pona +: noun: good, simplicity +: adjective: good, simple, friendly, peaceful +: verb: to improve, to fix + +pu (The official toki pona book only defines the verb meaning of the word “pu”. (Although the phrase “pu la” is used in it to mean “in this book”.) Some people in the toki pona community prefer to only use it in the verb meaning, while others use it in others as well) +: noun: the official toki pona book +: adjective: as told in the official toki pona book +: verb: interacting with the official toki pona book + +sama +: noun: similarity, (someone’s) sibling +: adjective: similar, like, sibling +: preposition: as, like + +seli +: noun: heat, warmth, chemical reaction, heat source +: adjective: warm, hot +: verb: to heat + +selo +: noun: outer form, outer layer, shell, skin, boundary +: adjective: outer + +seme +: particle: what? which? (for questions) + +sewi +: noun: area above, top, highest part, sky, god +: adjective: high, above, divine, sacred + +sijelo +: noun: body, physical state, torso +: adjective: physical, of sijelo + +sike +: noun: circle, ball, cycle, wheel, (with tenpo) year +: adjective: round, circular, spherical, of one year +: verb: to make a circle around, to surround + +sin +: noun: novelty, addition, (unconventional) update, spice +: adjective: new, additional, fresh, extra +: verb: to add, to update + +sina +: noun: you +: adjective: your + +sinpin +: noun: face, foremost part, front, wall +: adjective: of face, foremost + +sitelen +: noun: symbol, image, writing +: adjective: symbolic, written, recorded +: verb: to write, to draw, to record + +soko (People who want to only use _lipu pu_ vocabulary sometimes also use “kili ma” to refer to mushrooms. Alternatively, “kili pi kasi ala” is also possible, since “kili” also refers to mushrooms) +: noun: mushroom, fungus + +sona +: noun: knowledge, information +: adjective: known +: verb: to know +: pre-verb: to know (how to do something) + +soweli +: noun: land mammal, animal + +suli +: noun: size, greatness +: adjective: big, heavy, tall, great, important, adult +: verb: to grow + +suno +: noun: sun, light, brightness, light source +: adjective: solar, bright +: verb: to light, to shine + +supa +: noun: horizontal surface + +suwi +: noun: (unconventional) sweets, fragrances +: adjective: sweet, fragrant, cute, adorable + +tan +: noun: cause, reason, origin +: adjective: original +: verb w/ object (unconventional): to cause +: preposition: from, because of + +taso +: particle (at beginning of sentence): but, however +: adjective: only + +tawa +: noun: movement +: adjective: moving +: verb: to move +: preposition: to, for, from perspective of + +telo +: noun/adjective: water, fluid, liquid +: adjective: wet, fluid, liquid +: verb: to water, to clean + +tenpo +: noun: time, moment, occasion +: adjective: temporal + +toki +: noun: speech, conversation, language +: adjective: verbal, conversational +: verb: to speak, to talk, to use language, to think + +tomo +: noun: home, building, structure, indoor space, room +: adjective: indoor + +tonsi (The word “tonsi” was created by the community after the official book was released and, according to a poll in October of 2021, is the most accepted “new” non-official word) +: noun: non-binary person, trans person +: adjective: gender-nonconforming, trans + +tu (Using “tu” at the end of a noun phrase is generally associated with the number 2. The meaning “divided” is usually specified by using a “li” particle. “kulupu tu” meaning “two communities” and “kulupu li tu” meaning “the community is divided”.) +: number: 2 +: noun: divide +: adjective: divided +: verb: to divide + +unpa +: noun: sex +: adjective: sexual +: verb: to have sex with + +uta +: noun: mouth, lips +: adjective: oral + +utala +: noun: fight, battle, challenge, war +: adjective: aggressive, warlike +: verb: to fight, to battle, to challenge + +walo +: noun: the color white (and its shades) +: adjective: white, bright/light +: verb: to color something white + +wan (Using “wan” at the end of a noun phrase is generally associated with the number 1. The meaning “united” is usually specified by using a “li” particle. “kulupu wan” meaning “one community”, “kulupu li wan” meaning “the community is united”, “kulupu mute wan” meaning “21 communities (complex numbering system)”, and “kulupu mute li wan” meaning “many (or 20) communities are united”) +: number: 1 +: noun: part (of smth) +: adjective: united, married +: verb: to unite, to marry + +waso +: noun: bird, flying creature + +wawa +: noun: strength, power, energy +: adjective: strong, powerful, energetic + +weka +: noun: absence, remoteness +: adjective: absent, away, remote +: verb: remove, get rid of + +wile +: noun: want, need, desire +: adjective: desired, needed, required +: verb: to want smth +: pre-verb: to want to do smth diff --git a/docs/02 philosophy.md b/docs/02 philosophy.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..05f9b5d251fed89b1917f1b1e146717e9f043c3f --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/02 philosophy.md @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +- toki pona means "good language" or "simple language" +- Created by Sonja Lang as a philosophical attempt to understand life's meaning in 120 words +- Promotes simplicity, mindfulness, and semantic reduction +- Breaks down complex ideas into fundamental components +- Context-dependent meanings require present-moment awareness +- "Less is more" principle guides all communication diff --git a/docs/03 phonology.md b/docs/03 phonology.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6ca902f4b445dbbead509965150b6be9fc095460 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/03 phonology.md @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +- 14 letters only: a e i j k l m n o p s t u w +- j sounds like English 'y' (jelo = "yellow") +- Stress falls on FIRST syllable always +- CV(n) syllable structure (consonant-vowel, optional n) +- No consonant clusters except with n +- Forgiving pronunciation - variations acceptable diff --git a/docs/04 grammar and vocab.md b/docs/04 grammar and vocab.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7adc8a9208754d0110e6f5c4adc04c648511774c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/04 grammar and vocab.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ + + +- Basic: SUBJECT + li + PREDICATE +- With object: SUBJECT + li + VERB + e + OBJECT +- Exception: mi/sina alone don't need li +- Adjectives follow nouns: tomo telo (water room = bathroom) +- Multiple adjectives stack: jan pona mute (many good people) + + +- li: separates subject from predicate (except after mi/sina alone) +- e: marks direct object +- la: context separator (X la Y = "in context of X, Y") +- pi: groups modifiers (jan pi pona mute = "person of much good") +- o: vocative/imperative/optative +- a: emphasis/emotion +- anu: or +- en: and (between subjects only) +- taso: but (or "only" as adjective) +- seme: what/which (question word) + + +- No articles (a/the) +- No plurals marked on nouns +- No tense marking on verbs +- Proper names are adjectives after descriptive nouns +- Foreign names follow toki pona phonotactics +- Pre-verbs: kama, ken, wile, lukin, sona (modify main verb) + + +- Each word covers broad semantic range +- Words can be noun, verb, or adjective depending on position +- Context determines specific meaning +- Compound concepts use multiple words +- 120 official words total +- Numbers: ala (0), wan (1), tu (2), mute (3+), ale (∞/100) +- Extended counting: luka (5), mute (20), ale (100) + diff --git a/docs/05 formatting rules.md b/docs/05 formatting rules.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..bc1e37a893ad4d1780b3cf3eec62463745cfa624 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/05 formatting rules.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +## Format + +This section describes the text format used by hashcards. + +### Basic Cards + +Question-answer flashcards are written like this: + +``` +Q: What is the order of a group? +A: The cardinality of its underlying set. +``` + +Both the question and the answer can span multiple lines: + +``` +Q: List the PGM minerals. +A: + +- ruthenium +- rhodium +- palladium +- osmium +- iridium +- platinum +``` + +### Cloze Cards + +Cloze cards start with the `C:` tag, and use square brackets to denote cloze +deletions: + +``` +C: The [order] of a group is [the cardinality of its underlying set]. +``` + +Again, cloze cards can span multiple lines: + +``` +C: +Better is the sight of the eyes than the wandering of the +desire: this is also vanity and vexation of spirit. + +— [Ecclesiastes] [6]:[9] +``` + +### Hashcards does _not_ support arbitrary Markdown. Files may _only_ contain Q:/A:/C: formatting symbols—no italics, no bold, no headings. + +## Example + +The following Markdown file is a valid hashcards deck: + +```md|French.md +Q: What is the capital of France? +A: Paris + +C: [Paris] is the capital of [France]. +```